Alternative states in the structure of mountain forests across the Alps and the role of disturbance and recovery

Abstract Context Structure is a central dimension of forest ecosystems that closely linked to their capacity provide ecosystem services. Drivers such as changing disturbance regimes are increasingly altering structure, but large-scale characterizations structure and disturbance-mediated structural dynamics remain rare. Objectives Here, we characterize patterns in the horizontal vertical mountain forests test for presence alternative states. We investigate factors determining occurrence states role recovery transitions between Methods used spaceborne lidar (GEDI) across European Alps. combined GEDI-derived metrics with Landsat-based maps related topography, climate, landscape configuration, past disturbances. Results found two emerged consistently all types Alps: short, open-canopy (24%) tall, closed-canopy (76%). In absence disturbance, occurred at high elevations, edges, warm, dry sites. Disturbances caused transition conditions approximately 50% cases. Within 35 years after 72% recovered state, except submediterranean forests, where slow long-lasting more likely. Conclusions As climate warming increases disturbances causes thermophilization vegetation, could become likely future. Such restructuring pose challenge management, have lower capacities providing important